Sejarah Perkembangan Musik Dunia
Sejak
abad ke-2 dan abad ke-3 sebelum Masehi, di Tiongkok dan Mesir ada musik
yang mempunyai bentuk tertentu. Dengan mendapat pengaruh dari Mesir dan
Babilon, berkembanglah musik Hibrani yang dikemudian hari berkembang
menjadi musik Gereja.
Musik itu kemudian disenangi oleh masyarakat, karena adanya
pemain-pemain musik yang mengembara serta menyanyikan lagu yang dipakai
pada upacara Gereja. Musik itu tersebar di seluruh Eropa kemudian tumbuh
berkembang, dan musik instrumental maju dengan pesat setelah ada
perbaikan pada alat-alat musik, misalnya biola dan cello. Kemudian
timbulah alat musik Orgel. Komponis besar muncul di Jerman, Prancis,
Italia, dan Rusia. Dalam abad ke 19, rasa kebangsaan mulai bangun dan
berkembang. Oleh karena itu perkembangan musik pecah menurut
kebangsaannya masing-masing, meskipun pada permulaannya sama-sama
bergaya Romantik. Mulai abad 20, Prancis menjadi pelopor dengan musik
Impresionistis yang segera diganti dengan musik Ekspresionistis.
A. Perkembangan Musik Dunia
Musik sudah ada sejak Zaman purbakala dan dipergunakan sebagai alat untuk mengiringi upacara-upacara kepercayaan.
Perubahan sejarah musik terbesar terjadi pada abad
pertengahan,disebabkan terjadinya perubahan keadaan dunia yang makin
meningkat. Musik tidak hanya dipergunakan untuk keperluan keagamaan,
tetapi dipergunakan juga untuk urusan duniawi
PERKEMBANGAN MUSIK DUNIA TERBAGI DALAM ENAM ZAMAN :
1. Zaman Abad Pertengahan
Zaman Abad Pertengahan sejarah kebudayaan adalah Zaman antara
berakhirnya kerajaan Romawi (476 M) sampai dengan Zaman Reformasi agama
Kristen oleh Marthen Luther (1572M). perkembangan Musik pada Zaman ini
disebabkan oleh terjadinya perubahan keadaan dunia yang semakin
meningkat, yang menyebabkan penemuan-penemuan baru dalam segala bidang,
termasuk dalam kebudayaan. Perubahan dalam sejarah musik adalah bahwa
musik tidak lagi dititikberatkan pada kepentingan keagamaan tetapi
dipergunakan juga untuk urusan duniawi, sebagai sarana hiburan.
Perkembangan selanjutnya adalah adanya perbaikan tulisan musik dan
dasar-dasar teori musik yang dikembangkan oleh Guido d’ Arezzo (1050 M)
Musik dengan menggunakan beberapa suara berkembang di Eropa Barat. Musik Greogrian disempurnakan oleh Paus Gregorius.
Pelopor Musik pada Zaman Pertengahan adalah :
1. Gullanme Dufay dari Prancis.
2. Adam de la halle dari Jerman.
2. Zaman Renaisance (1500 – 1600)
Zaman Renaisance adalah zaman setelah abad Pertengahan, Renaisance
artinya Kelahiran Kembali tingkat Kebudayaan tinggi yang telah hilang
pada Zaman Romawi. Musik dipelajari dengan cirri-ciri khusus, contoh
nyanyian percintaan, nyanyian keperwiraan. Sebaliknya musik Gereja
mengalami kemunduran. Pada zaman ini alat musik Piano dan Organ sudah
dikenal, sehingga munculah musik Instrumental. Di kota Florence
berkembang seni Opera. Opera adalah sandiwara dengan iringan musik
disertai oloeh para penyanyinya.
Komponis-komponis pada Zaman Renaisance diantaranya :
1. Giovanni Gabrieli (1557 – 1612) dari Italia.
2. Galilei (1533 – 1591) dari Italia.
3. Claudio Monteverdi (1567 – 1643) dari Venesia.
4. Jean Baptiste Lully (1632 – 1687) dari Prancis.
3. Zaman Barok dan Rokoko
Kemajuan musik pada zaman pertengahan ditandai dengan munculnya
aliran-aliran musik baru, diantaranya adalah aliran Barok dan Rokoko.
Kedua aliran ini hamper sama sifatnya, yaitu adanya pemakaian Ornamentik
(Hiasan Musik). Perbedaannya adalah bahwa musik Barok memakai
Ornamentik yang deserahkan pada Improvisasi spontan oleh pemain,
sedangkan pada musik Rokoko semua hiasan Ornamentik dicatat.
Komponis-komponis pada Zaman Barok dan Rokoko :
A. Johan Sebastian Bach
Lahir tanggal 21 Maret 1685 di Eisenach Jerman, meninggal tanggal 28
Juli 1750 di Lipzig Jerman. Hasil karyanya yang amat indah dan terkenal:
1. St. Mathew Passion.
2. Misa dalam b minor.
3. 13 buah konser piano dengan orkes
4. 6 buah Konserto Brandenburg
Gubahan-gubahannya mendasari musik modern. Sebastian Bach menciptakan
musik Koral (musik untuk Khotbah Gereja) dan menciptakan lagu-lagu
instrumental.
Pada akhir hidupnya Sebastian Bach menjadi buta dan meninggal di Leipzig
B. George Fredrick Haendel
Lahir di Halle Saxony 23 Februari 1685 di London, meninggal di London
tanggal 14 April 1759. Semasa kecilnya dia sudah memperlihatkan bekat
keahlian dalam bermain musik. Pada tahun 1703,ia pindah ke Hamburg untuk
menjadi anggaota Orkes Opera. Tahun 1712 ia kembali mengunjungi
Inggris. Hasil ciptaannya yang terkenal adalah ;
1. Messiah, yang merupakan Oratorio (nama sejenis musik) yang terkenal.
2. Water Musik (Musik Air).
3. Fire Work Music (Musik Petasan).
Water Musik dan Fire Work Music merupakan Orkestranya yang paling
terkenal. Dia meninggal di London dan dimakamkan di Westminster Abbey.
4. Zaman Klasik (1750 – 1820)
Sejarah musik klasik dimukai pada tahun 1750, setelah berakhirnya musik Barok dan Rokoko.
Ciri-ciri Zaman musik Klasik:
a. Penggunaan dinamika dari Keras menjadi Lembut, Crassendo dan Decrasscendo.
b. Perubahan tempo dengan accelerando (semakin Cepat) dan Ritarteando (semakin lembut).
c. Pemakaian Ornamentik dibatasi
d. Penggunaan Accodr 3 nada.
Komponis-komponis pada Zaman Klasik antara lain :
1. Frans Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809),
Lahir di Rohrau Austria, ia meninggal tanggal 31 Mei 1809 di Wina
Austria. Karya ciptaannya yaitu : Sonata Piano, 87 buah kuartet, 24 buah
opera, 100 buah simfoni, yang paling terkenal adalah The Surprisse
Sympony. Dalam sejarah musik, Joseph Haydn termashur sebagai Bapak
Simfony yang mewujudkan bentuk orkes dan kuartet seperti yang kita kenal
sekarang. Di Wina ia diakui sebagai Komponis Austria yang handal.
2. Wolfgang Amandeus Mozart (1756 – 1791)
Lahir pada tanggal 27 januari 1756 di Salzburg Austria, meninggal
tanggal 5 Desember 1791 di Wina Austria. Hasil karyanya adalah : Requiem
Mars, 40 buah Simfony, Opera Don Geovani, Kuintet Biola Alto, Konserto
Piano. Pada usia 3 tahun ia telah dapat menghasilkan melodi dan
menerapkan accor pada hrpsikord. Pada usia 5 tahun ia telah mulai
menciptakan lagu dan muncul didepan umum pada usia 6 tahun, kemudian
bersama saudara perempuannya mengadakan Tour keliling Eropa. Pada tahun
1781 ia pindah ke kota Wina dan mengarang ciptaan-ciptaannya yang
termaahur. Permainannya sangat menakjubkan, sehingga dijiluki Anak
Ajaib. Biarpun memperoleh banyak sukses, tapi ia sangat miskin dan dalam
keadaan yang sengsara, ia meninggal di Wina dalam usia 35 tahun dan
dikuburkan di pekuburan fakir miskin. Ia menulis banyak komposisi dalam
bentuk yang berbeda-beda tetapi berpegang kuat pada gaya klasik murni.
5. Zaman Romantik (1820 – 1900)
Musik romantic sangat mementingkan perasaan yang subyaktif. Musik bukan
saja dipergunakan untuk mencapai keindahan nada-nada, akan tetapi
digunakan untuk mengungkapkan perasaan. Oleh karena itu, dinamika dan
tempo banyak dipakai. Komponis-komponis pada Zaman romantic adalah :
a. Ludwig Von Bethoven dari Jerman.
b. Franz Peter Schubert dari Wina.
c. Francois Fredrick Chopin dari Polandia
d. Robert Alexander Schumann dari jerman.
e. Johanes Brahms dari Hamburg Jerman.
Riwayat Haidup Komponis Zaman Romantik :
A. Ludwig Von Beethoven (1770 – 1827)
Lahir Desember 1770 di Bonn Jerman, ia meninggal tanggal 26 Maret 1827
di Wina Austria. Ia menamakan dirinya sebagai Pujangga Nada. Sejak usia 4
tahun dia belajar musik dibawah asuhan ayanhnya. Pada usia 17 tahun ia
pergi ke Wina menemui komponis Mozart, kemudian Mozart memberi bimbingan
musik kepadanya, sehingga ia dapat menjadi pemain musik yang baik danm
komonis yang berbakat. Pada usia 30 tahun pendengarannya mulai
berkurang, dan usia 50 tahun pendengarannya tuli sama sekali. Pada waktu
ciptaannya Ninth Symphonies lahir, ia tidak mampu lagi mendengarkan
hasil karyanya itu. Pada tanggal 26 Maret 1827, dia meninggal di Wina.
Ia hidup dengan sangat menderita, tetapi mampu menciptakan Sonata dunia
yang paling indah. Hasil ciptaannya antara lain :
- 5 buah sonata cello dan piano.
- 9 buah symfoni
- 32 sonata piano.
B. Franz Peter Scubert (1797 – 1828)
Lahir di Wina 31 Januari 1797, dia meninggal tanggal 19 Desember 1828,
ciptaannya antara lain : Ave Maria, The Erl King, Antinghed Symphony,
Gretchen At The Spining Sheel, The Wild Rose. Schubert mempunyai suara
yang merdu dan menjadi penyayi paduan suara Imperial Choir. Kemudian ia
memperdalam pengetahuan musiknya dibidang komposisi. Pada waktu
meninggal, Ia tidak dikenal orang banyak dan berpasan agar dikuburkan
dekat makan Beethoven. Dia meninggalkan 100 buah hasil karyanya,
kebanyakan lagu-lagu solo.
C. Wilhelm Richard Wagner (1813 – 1883)
Lahir tanggal 22 Mei 1813 di Leipzig Jerman, meninggal 13 Februari 1883
di Venesia. Hasil ciptaannya antaralain : Tannhauser, Die Maistersinger
Von Hurberg, Lohengrin, Der Fliegende Holander.
D. Johannes Brahms (1883 – 1897)
Lahir 7 Mei 1883 di Hamburg Jerman, ia meninggal 3 April 1897 di Wina
Austria. Hasil ciptaannya : Hungarian Dance, Muskoor Ein Deusches
Requiem, Kuartet gesek.. paa usia 14 tahun ia telah menjadi pianis yang
baik. Dia adalah seorang komponis terakhir dari aliran Romantik,
karyanya sangat indah.
6. Zaman Modern (1900 – sekarang)
Musik pada Zaman ini tidak mengakui adanya hukum-hukum dan
peraturan-peraturan, karena kemajuan ilmu dan teknologi yang semakin
pesat, misalnya penemuan dibidang teknik seperti Film, Radio, dan
Televisi. Pada masa ini orang ingin mengungkapkan sesuatu dengan bebas.
Komponis-komponis pada Zaman Modern :
1. Claude Achille Debussy dari Prancis
2. Bella Bartok dari Honggaria.
3. Maurice Ravel dari Prancis.
4. Igor Fedorovinsky dari Rusia
5. Edward Benyamin Britten dari Inggris.
Opera, Beralih dari Panggung ke Layar Lebar
Baru
beberapa tahun terakhir opera mulai mendapat tempat baru di hati
masyarakat Amerika dan Eropa, di layar lebar. Inilah metode baru yang
dibawa Peter Gelb, general manager Metropolitan Opera New York semenjak tahun 2006.
Sebelumnya Gelb menjabat Classical Director di
perusahaan rekaman besar dunia Sony, suatu posisi yang menempatkannya
di ujung tombak musik klasik dan perkembangan teknologi.
Menurutnya kala itu, metode baru ini akan
meningkatkan popularitas opera di mata publik Amerika. Dan ternyata
memang berhasil menarik simpati ke pada seni pertunjukan opera.
Opera sudah mondar-mandir di televisi selama lebih
dari 50 tahun. Banyak opera sudah diproduksi di panggung maupun studio
untuk ditayangkan di kotak kaca. Legenda-legenda opera pun sering tampak
memerankan tokoh-tokoh opera di televisi, yang DVDnya saat ini tersedia
di Amazon maupun lapak Mangga Dua.
Namun untuk layar lebar tampaknya belum terpikir oleh banyak manager opera dunia. Bila mana tidak, siapa yang ingin menyaksikan tokoh opera di layar bioskop? Jarang.
Meskipun demikian Gelb berhasil mengubah pandangan
banyak orang tersebut, dan menjadikannya contoh bagi industri opera di
dunia, termasuk Eropa yang notabene adalah negara asal seni tersebut.
Metropolitan Opera di Big Apple adalah salah satu
opera company terbesar dan terbaik di dunia, kualitas produksinya nomor
satu di Amerika. Setiap penyanyi opera dunia bermimpi bisa berdiri di
panggung The Met dan menaklukkan benua Amerika melalui perannya. Ia yang
berhasil di panggung ini, bukan saja akan terkenal di Amerika tetapi
juga di Eropa dan hampir 100% meraih karier sebagai penyanyi kelas
dunia.
Lalu nilai jual apa yang ia tawarkan? Ia menawarkan siaran langsung secara High Definition di
layar bioskop terdekat di kota Anda. Memang tidak semua kota tetapi,
acara ini sangat menjangkau pelosok daratan Amerika Serikat.
Siaran langsung? Ya, siaran langsung lengkap dengan
surround 5.1 di gedung bioskop. Opera ditayangkan langsung dari New York
dengan kualitas prima, lengkap dengan jeda istirahat seperti pagelaran
sebenarnya. Proses rekaman diadakan langsung pada saat pagelaran harian
yang lumayan dipenuhi penonton.
Teknik kamera dan perekaman suara juga dilakukan dengan sekejap. Close up penyanyi membuat penonton dapat membaca jelas ekspresi si penyanyi. Tentunya penyutradaraannya sama sekali tidak mudah.
Metode ini mirip sekali dengan siaran langsung sepak
bola. Hanya bedanya, siaran langsung ini adalah nonton bareng di bioskop
berlayar lebar. Rasanya tentu berbeda dengan menonton siaran televisi
langsung di rumah dengan tata suara yang mungkin tidak sepadan dengan di
bioskop.
Dari segi konsep pun juga mirip dengan pertandingan
sepak bola. Di stadion sepak bola, mungkin hanya 30.000 orang yang
menyaksikan, sedangkan bisa dibantu siaran langsung jutaan orang bisa
turut menyaksikan pertandingan tersebut. Itu pula yang diharapkan dari
siaran Live in HD ini.
Animo masyarakat di Amerika sangat tinggi. Bagi
mereka Met adalah kebanggaan, tetapi tidak semua punya kesempatan
menonton langsung di Lincoln Center, Taman Ismail Marzukinya New York.
Jadi mereka menonton di bioskop saja.
Tidak jarang tiket sebuah bioskop untuk 3 ruang
auditorium habis terjual karena banyak ingin menyaksikan langsung proses
seni dan budaya dari panggung Metropolitan Opera.
Di musim 2007-2008 Metropolitan Opera menelurkan 8
buah produksi opera berbeda untuk disiarkan langsung. Jumlah tempat yang
menyiarkannya pun berjumlah fantastis, 343 tempat di penjuru Amerika
Serikat, termasuk di beberapa auditorium kampus. Angka berkembang sampai
lebih dari 700 di penjuru dunia, di antaranya Eropa, Asia dan
Australia.
Sukses di tahun kemarin dengan total 800.000 orang
menonton pagelaran baik langsung di Met maupun di bioskop membuat Peter
Gelb percaya diri. Ia pun mencanangkan tahun ini penonton The Met akan
mencapai 1 juta orang.
Tahun ini mulai ada asosiasi opera lain yang mulai
mengembangkan teknik yang mirip. La Scala di Milan dan San Francisco
Opera sekarang juga mencoba merambah layar lebar. Konsep yang mereka
ambil adalah metode siaran tunda.
San Francisco karena dekat dengan industri Hollywood
akan membuat rekaman ini berkualitas rekaman Hollywood, yang pertama di
Amerika Serikat. Begitu juga dengan Royal Opera House di Inggris yang
terkenal dengan Covent Gardennya, mulai menyiarkan 6 produksi setahunnya
Musical instrument
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A musical instrument is a device created or adapted to musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound
can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object
becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates
back to the beginnings of human culture. The purpose of early musical
instruments was ritual:[citation needed] a hunter might use a trumpet to signal success on the hunt, or a shaman might use a drum in a religious ceremony. Cultures later developed the processes of composing and performing melodies for entertainment.[citation needed] Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications.
The date and origin of the first device considered a musical
instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some scholars refer to as
a musical instrument, a simple flute,
dates back as far as 67,000 years. Consensus begins to form about early
flutes dating to about 37,000 years old. However, most historians
believe that determining a specific time of musical instrument invention
is impossible due to the subjectivity of the definition and the
relative instability of materials that were used in their construction.
Many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood,
and other non-durable materials.
Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions
of the world. However, contact among civilizations resulted in the
rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their
origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia could be found in Maritime Southeast Asia
and Europeans were playing instruments from North Africa. Development
in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North,
Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical
instrument development slowed in many areas and was dominated by the Occident.
The classification of musical instruments is a discipline in its own
right, and many systems of classification have been used over the years.
One may classify musical instruments by their effective range or their
material composition; however, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs,
uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of
musical instruments is called organology.
Definition and basic operation
A musical instrument makes sounds. Once humans moved from making
sounds with their bodies—for example, by clapping—to using objects to
create music from sounds, musical instruments were born.[1]
Primitive instruments were probably designed to emulate natural sounds,
and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of
melody and the artistic pursuit of musical composition were unknown to
early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to
signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the modern notion
of "making music".[2]
Musical instruments are constructed in a broad array of styles and
shapes, using many different materials. Early musical instruments were
made from "found objects" such a shells and plant parts.[2]
As instruments evolved, so did the selection and quality of materials.
Virtually every material in nature has been used by at least one culture
to make musical instruments.[2] One plays a musical instrument by interacting with it in some way—for example, by plucking the strings on a string instrument.
Archaeology
Researchers have discovered archaeological evidence of musical
instruments in many parts of the world. Some finds are 67,000 years old,
however their status as musical instruments is often in dispute.
Consensus solidifies about artifacts dated back to around 37,000 years
old and later. Only artifacts made from durable materials or using
durable methods tend to survive. As such, the specimens found cannot be
irrefutably placed as the earliest musical instruments.[3]
In July 1995, Slovenian archaeologist Ivan Turk discovered a bone carving in the northwest region of Slovenia. The carving, named the Divje Babe flute, features four holes that Canadian musicologist Bob Fink determined could have been used to play four notes of a diatonic scale.
Researchers estimate the flute's age at between 43,400 and 67,000
years, making it the oldest known musical instrument and the only
musical instrument associated with the Neanderthal culture.[4] However, some archaeologists and ethnomusicologists dispute the flute's status as a musical instrument.[5] German archaeologists have found mammoth bone and swan bone flutes dating back to 30,000 to 37,000 years old in the Swabian Alps. The flutes were made in the Upper Paleolithic age, and are more commonly accepted as being the oldest known musical instruments.[6]
Archaeological evidence of musical instruments was discovered in excavations at the Royal Cemetery in the Sumerian city of Ur (see Lyres of Ur). These instruments, one of the first ensembles of instruments yet discovered, include nine lyres, two harps, a silver double flute, sistra and cymbals. A set of reed-sounded silver pipes discovered in Ur was the likely predecessor of modern bagpipes.[7] The cylindrical pipes feature three side-holes that allowed players to produce whole tone scales.[8] These excavations, carried out by Leonard Woolley
in the 1920s, uncovered non-degradable fragments of instruments and the
voids left by the degraded segments that, together, have been used to
reconstruct them.[9] The graves these instruments were buried in have been carbon dated to between 2600 and 2500 BCE, providing evidence that these instruments were used in Sumeria by this time.[10]
Archaeologists in the Jiahu site of central Henan province of China have found flutes made of bones that date back 7,000 to 9,000 years,[11] representing some of the "earliest complete, playable, tightly-dated, multinote musical instruments" ever found.[11][12]
Many instruments make sound.
History
Scholars agree that there are no completely reliable methods of
determining the exact chronology of musical instruments across cultures.
Comparing and organizing instruments based on their complexity is
misleading, since advancements in musical instruments have sometimes
reduced complexity. For example, construction of early slit drums involved felling and hollowing out large trees; later slit drums were made by opening bamboo stalks, a much simpler task.[13]
Curt Sachs
argued that is misleading to arrange the development of musical
instruments by workmanship since all cultures advance at different
levels and have access to different materials. For example, contemporary
anthropologists
attempting to compare musical instruments made by two cultures that
existed at the same time but who differed in organization, culture, and
handicraft cannot determine which instruments are more "primitive".[14]
Ordering instruments by geography is also partially unreliable, as one
cannot determine when and how cultures contacted one another and shared
knowledge.
German musicologist Curt Sachs, one of the most prominent musicologists[15] and musical ethnologists[16]
in modern times, proposed that a geographical chronology until
approximately 1400 is preferable, however, due to its limited
subjectivity.[17] Beyond 1400, one can follow the overall development of musical instruments by time period.[17]
The science of marking the order of musical instrument development
relies on archaeological artifacts, artistic depictions, and literary
references. Since data in one research path can be inconclusive, all
three paths provide a better historical picture.[3]
Primitive and prehistoric
Two Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli. The characteristic "H" slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground
Until the 19th century AD, European written music histories began
with mythological accounts of how musical instruments were invented.
Such accounts included Jubal, descendant of Cain and "father of all such as handle the harp and the organ", Pan, inventor of the pan pipes, and Mercury, who is said to have made a dried tortoise shell into the first lyre.
Modern histories have replaced such mythology with anthropological
speculation, occasionally informed by archeological evidence. Scholars
agree that there was no definitive "invention" of the musical instrument
since the definition of the term "musical instrument" is completely
subjective to both the scholar and the would-be inventor. For example, a
Homo habilis slapping his body could be the makings of a musical instrument regardless of the being's intent.[18]
Among the first devices external to the human body that are considered instruments are rattles, stampers, and various drums.[19] These earliest instruments evolved due to the human motor impulse to add sound to emotional movements such as dancing.[20]
Eventually, some cultures assigned ritual functions to their musical
instruments, using them for hunting and various ceremonies.[21]
Those cultures developed more complex percussion instruments and other
instruments such as ribbon reeds, flutes, and trumpets. Some of these
labels carry far different connotations from those used in modern day;
early flutes and trumpets are so-labeled for their basic operation and
function rather than any resemblance to modern instruments.[22] Among early cultures for whom drums developed ritual, even sacred importance are the Chukchi people of the Russian Far East, the indigenous people of Melanesia, and many cultures of Africa. In fact, drums were pervasive throughout every African culture.[23] One East African tribe, the Wahinda, believed it was so holy that seeing a drum would be fatal to any person other than the sultan.[24]
Humans eventually developed the concept of using musical instruments for producing a melody. Until this time in the evolutions of musical instruments, melody was common only in singing. Similar to the process of reduplication
in language, instrument players first developed repetition and then
arrangement. An early form of melody was produced by pounding two
stamping tubes of slightly different sizes—one tube would produce a
"clear" sound and the other would answer with a "darker" sound. Such
instrument pairs also included bullroarers,
slit drums, shell trumpets, and skin drums. Cultures who used these
instrument pairs associated genders with them; the "father" was the
bigger or more energetic instrument, while the "mother" was the smaller
or duller instrument. Musical instruments existed in this form for
thousands of years before patterns of three or more tones would evolve
in the form of the earliest xylophone.[25] Xylophones originated in the mainland and archipelago of Southeast Asia, eventually spreading to Africa, the Americas, and Europe.[26]
Along with xylophones, which ranged from simple sets of three "leg
bars" to carefully tuned sets of parallel bars, various cultures
developed instruments such as the ground harp, ground zither, musical bow, and jaw harp.[27]
Antiquity
Images of musical instruments begin to appear in Mesopotamian artifacts in 2800 BC or earlier. Beginning around 2000 BC, Sumerian and Babylonian cultures began delineating two distinct classes of musical instruments due to division of labor
and the evolving class system. Popular instruments, simple and playable
by anyone, evolved differently from professional instruments whose
development focused on effectiveness and skill.[28] Despite this development, very few musical instruments have been recovered in Mesopotamia. Scholars must rely on artifacts and cuneiform texts written in Sumerian or Akkadian
to reconstruct the early history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia.
Even the process of assigning names to these instruments is challenging
since there is no clear distinction among various instruments and the
words used to describe them.[29]
Although Sumerian and Babylonian artists mainly depicted ceremonial instruments, historians have been able to distinguish six idiophones used in early Mesopotamia: concussion clubs, clappers, sistra, bells, cymbals, and rattles.[30] Sistra are depicted prominently in a great relief of Amenhotep III,[31] and are of particular interest because similar designs have been found in far-reaching places such as Tbilisi, Georgia and among the Native American Yaqui tribe.[32]
The people of Mesopotamia preferred stringed instruments to any other,
as evidenced by their proliferation in Mesopotamian figurines, plaques,
and seals. Innumerable varieties of harps are depicted, as well as lyres
and lutes, the forerunner of modern stringed instruments such as the violin.[33]
Musical instruments used by the Egyptian culture before 2700 BC bore
striking similarity to those of Mesopotamia, leading historians to
conclude that the civilizations must have been in contact with one
another. Sachs notes that Egypt did not possess any instruments that the
Sumerian culture did not also possess.[34]
However, by 2700 BC the cultural contacts seem to have dissipated; the
lyre, a prominent ceremonial instrument in Sumer, did not appear in
Egypt for another 800 years.[34]
Clappers and concussion sticks appear on Egyptian vases as early as
3000 BC. The civilization also made use of sistra, vertical flutes,
double clarinets, arched and angular harps, and various drums.[35]
Little history is available in the period between 2700 BC and 1500
BC, as Egypt (and indeed, Babylon) entered a long violent period of war
and destruction. This period saw the Kassites destroy the Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia and the Hyksos destroy the Middle Kingdom of Egypt.
When the Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Southwest Asia in around 1500 BC,
the cultural ties to Mesopotamia were renewed and Egypt's musical
instruments also reflected heavy influence from Asiatic cultures.[34] Under their new cultural influences, the people of the New Kingdom began using oboes, trumpets, lyres, lutes, castanets, and cymbals.[36]
In contrast with Mesopotamia and Egypt, professional musicians did not exist in Israel
between 2000 and 1000 BC. While the history of musical instruments in
Mesopotamia and Egypt relies on artistic representations, the culture in
Israel produced few such representations. Scholars must therefore rely
on information gleaned from the Bible and the Talmud.[37] The Hebrew texts mention two prominent instruments associated with Jubal, ugabs and kinnors. These may be translated as pan pipes and lyres, respectively.[38] Other instruments of the period included tofs, or frame drums, small bells or jingles called pa'amon, shofars, and the trumpet-like hasosra.[39]
The introduction of a monarchy in Israel during the 11th century BC
produced the first professional musicians and with them a drastic
increase in the number and variety of musical instruments.[40]
However, identifying and classifying the instruments remains a
challenge due to the lack of artistic interpretations. For example,
stringed instruments of uncertain design called nevals and asors
existed, but neither archaeology nor etymology can clearly define them.[41] In her book A Survey of Musical Instruments,
American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes that the nevel must be
similar to vertical harp due to its relation to "nabla", the Phoenician
term for "harp".[42]
In Greece, Rome, and Etruria,
the use and development of musical instruments stood in stark contrast
to those cultures' achievements in architecture and sculpture. The
instruments of the time were simple and virtually all of them were
imported from other cultures.[43] Lyres were the principal instrument, as musicians used them to honor the gods.[44] Greeks played a variety of wind instruments they classified as aulos (reeds) or syrinx (flutes); Greek writing from that time reflects a serious study of reed production and playing technique.[8] Romans played reed instruments named tibia featuring side-holes that could be opened or closed, allowing for greater flexibility in playing modes.[45] Other instruments in common use in the region included vertical harps derived from those of the Orient, lutes of Egyptian design, various pipes and organs, and clappers, which were played primarily by women.[46]
Evidence of musical instruments in use by early civilizations of India is almost completely lacking, making it impossible to reliably attribute instruments to the Munda and Dravidian language-speaking cultures that first settled the area. Rather, the history of musical instruments in the area begins with the Indus Valley Civilization
that emerged around 3000 BC. Various rattles and whistles found among
excavated artifacts are the only physical evidence of musical
instruments.[47] A clay statuette indicates the use of drums, and examination of the Indus script
has also revealed representations of vertical arched harps identical in
design to those depicted in Sumerian artifacts. This discovery is among
many indications that the Indus Valley and Sumerian cultures maintained
cultural contact. Subsequent developments in musical instruments in
India occurred with the Rigveda, or hymns. These songs used various drums, shell trumpets, harps, and flutes.[48] Other prominent instruments in use during the early centuries AD were the snake charmer's double clarinet, bagpipes, barrel drums, cross flutes, and short lutes. In all, India had no unique musical instruments until the Middle Ages.[49]
A Chinese wooden fish, used in Buddhist recitations
Musical instruments such as zithers appeared in Chinese writings around 12th century BC and earlier.[50] Early Chinese philosophers such as Confucius (551–479 BC), Mencius (372–289 BC), and Laozi
shaped the development of musical instruments in China, adopting an
attitude toward music similar to that of the Greeks. The Chinese
believed that music was an essential part of character and community,
and developed a unique system of classifying their musical instruments
according to their material makeup.[51]
Idiophones were extremely important in Chinese music, hence the majority of early instruments were idiophones. Poetry of the Shang Dynasty
mentions bells, chimes, drums, and globular flutes carved from bone,
the latter of which has been excavated and preserved by archaeologists.[52] The Zhou Dynasty saw percussion instruments such as clappers, troughs, wooden fish, and yu. Wind instruments such as flute, pan-pipes, pitch-pipes, and mouth organs also appeared in this time period.[53] The xiao and various other instruments that spread through many cultures, came into use in China during and after the Han Dynasty.[54]
Although civilizations in Central America
attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh
century AD, they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of
musical instruments. For example, they had no stringed instruments; all
of their instruments were idiophones, drums, and wind instruments such
as flutes and trumpets. Of these, only the flute was capable of
producing a melody.[55] In contrast, pre-Columbian South American civilizations in areas such as modern-day Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile
were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically. South
American cultures of the time used pan-pipes as well as varieties of
flutes, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood trumpets.[56]
Middle Ages
During the period of time loosely referred to as the Middle Ages,
China developed a tradition of integrating musical influence from other
regions. The first record of this type of influence is in 384 AD, when
China established an orchestra in its imperial court after a conquest in
Turkestan.
Influences from Middle East, Persia, India, Mongolia, and other
countries followed. In fact, Chinese tradition attributes many musical
instruments from this period to those regions and countries.[57] Cymbals gained popularity, along with more advanced trumpets, clarinets, oboes, flutes, drums, and lutes.[58] Some of the first bowed-zithers appeared in China in the 9th or 10th century, influenced by Mongolian culture.[59]
India experienced similar development to China in the Middle Ages;
however, stringed instruments developed differently to accommodate
different styles of music. While stringed instruments of China were
designed to produce precise tones capable of matching the tones of
chimes, stringed instruments of India were considerably more flexible.
This flexibility suited the slides and tremolos
of Hindu music. Rhythm was of paramount importance in Indian music of
the time, as evidenced by the frequent depiction of drums in reliefs
dating to the Middle Ages. The emphasis on rhythm is an aspect native to
Indian music.[60]
Historians divide the development of musical instruments in medieval
India between pre-Islamic and Islamic periods due to the different
influence each period provided.[61]
In pre-Islamic times, idiophones such hand bells, cymbals, and
peculiar instruments resembling gongs came into wide use in Hindu music.
The gong-like instrument was a bronze disk that was struck with a
hammer instead of a mallet. Tubular drums, stick zithers named veena, short fiddles, double and triple flutes, coiled trumpets, and curved India horns emerged in this time period.[62] Islamic influences brought new types of drums, perfectly circular or octagonal as opposed to the irregular pre-Islamic drums.[63] Persian influence brought oboes and sitars, although Persian sitars had three strings and Indian version had from four to seven.[64]
Southeast Asian musical innovations include those during a period of Indian influence that ended around 920 AD.[65] Balinese and Javanese music made use of xylophones and metallophones, bronze versions of the former.[66]
The most prominent and important musical instrument of Southeast Asia
was the gong. While the gong likely originated in the geographical area
between Tibet and Burma, it was part of every category of human activity in Maritime Southeast Asia including Java.[67]
The areas of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula experiences rapid growth and sharing of musical instruments once they were united by Islamic culture in the seventh century.[68] Frame drums and cylindrical drums of various depths were immensely important in all genres of music.[69]
Conical oboes were involved in the music that accompanied wedding and
circumcision ceremonies. Persian miniatures provide information on the
development of kettle drums in Mesopotamia that spread as far as Java.[70] Various lutes, zithers, dulcimers, and harps spread as far as Madagascar to the south and modern-day Sulawesi to the east.[71]
Despite the influences of Greece and Rome, most musical instruments
in Europe during the Middles Ages came from Asia. The lyre is the only
musical instrument that may have been invented in Europe until this
period.[72]
Stringed instruments were prominent in Middle Age Europe. The central
and northern regions used mainly lutes, stringed instruments with necks, while the southern region used lyres, which featured a two-armed body and a crossbar.[72] Various harps served Central and Northern Europe as far north as Ireland, where the harp eventually became a national symbol.[73] Lyres propagated through the same areas, as far east as Estonia.[74]
European music between 800 and 1100 became more sophisticated, more frequently requiring instruments capable of polyphony. The Persian geographer of the 9th century (Ibn Khordadbeh), mentioned in his lexicographical discussion of music instruments that in the Byzantine Empire typical instruments included the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre), salandj (probably a bagpipe) and the Byzantine lyra (Greek: λύρα ~ lūrā).[75] Lyra was a medieval pear-shaped bowed string instrument with three to five strings, held upright and is an ancestor of most European bowed instruments, including the violin.[76]
The monochord served as a precise measure of the notes of a musical scale, allowing more accurate musical arrangements.[77] Mechanical hurdy-gurdies
allowed single musicians to play more complicated arrangements than a
fiddle would; both were prominent folk instruments in the Middle Ages.[78][79]
Southern Europeans played short and long lutes whose pegs extended to
the sides, unlike the rear-facing pegs of Central and Northern European
instruments.[80] Idiophones such as bells and clappers served various practical purposes, such as warning of the approach of a leper.[81]
The ninth century revealed the first bagpipes, which spread throughout Europe and had many uses from folk instruments to military instruments.[82] The construction of pneumatic organs evolved in Europe starting in fifth century Spain, spreading to England in about 700.[83] The resulting instruments varied in size and use from portable organs worn around the neck to large pipe organs.[84] Literary accounts of organs being played in English Benedictine abbeys toward the end of the tenth century are the first references to organs being connected to churches.[85] Reed players of the Middle Ages were limited to oboes; no evidence of clarinets exists during this period.[86]
Modern
Renaissance
Musical instrument development was dominated by the Occident from 1400 on—indeed, the most profound changes occurred during the Renaissance
period. Instruments took on other purposes than accompanying singing or
dance, and performers used them as solo instruments. Keyboards and
lutes developed as polyphonic instruments, and composers arranged
increasingly complex pieces using more advanced tablature. Composers also began designing pieces of music for specific instruments.[18] In the latter half of the sixteenth century, orchestration
came into common practice as a method of writing music for a variety of
instruments. Composers now specified orchestration where individual
performers once applied their own discretion.[87] The polyphonic style dominated popular music, and the instrument makers responded accordingly.[88]
Beginning in about 1400, the rate of development of musical
instruments increased in earnest as compositions demanded more dynamic
sounds. People also began writing books about creating, playing, and
cataloging musical instruments; the first such book was Sebastian Virdung's 1511 treatise Musica getuscht und ausgezogen (English: Music Germanized and Abstracted).[87]
Virdung's work is noted as being particularly thorough for including
descriptions of "irregular" instruments such as hunters' horns and cow
bells, though Virdung is critical of the same. Other books followed,
including Arnolt Schlick's Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (English: Mirror of Organ Makers and Organ Players) the following year, a treatise on organ building and organ playing.[89]
Of the instructional books and references published in the Renaissance
era, one is noted for its detailed description and depiction of all wind
and stringed instruments, including their relative sizes. This book,
the Syntagma musicum by Michael Praetorius, is now considered an authoritative reference of sixteenth century musical instruments.[90]
In the sixteenth century, musical instrument builders gave most
instruments, such as the violin, the "classical shapes" they retain
today. An emphasis on aesthetic beauty also developed—listeners were as
pleased with the physical appearance of an instrument as they were with
its sound. Therefore, builders paid special attention to materials and
workmanship, and instruments became collectibles in homes and museums.[91] It was during this period that makers began constructing instruments of the same type in various sizes to meet the demand of consorts, or ensembles playing works written for these groups of instruments.[92]
Instrument builders developed other features that endure today. For
example, while organs with multiple keyboards and pedals already
existed, the first organs with solo stops
emerged in the early fifteenth century. These stops were meant to
produce a mixture of timbres, a development needed for the complexity of
music of the time.[93] Trumpets evolved into their modern form to improve portability, and players used mutes to properly blend into chamber music.[94]
Baroque
Beginning in the seventeenth century, composers began creating works of a more emotional style. They felt that a monophonic style better suited the emotional music and wrote musical parts for instruments that would complement the singing human voice.[88]
As a result, many instruments that were incapable of larger ranges and
dynamics, and therefore were seen as unemotional, fell out of favor. One
such instrument was the shawm.[95] Bowed instruments such as the violin, viola, baryton, and various lutes dominated popular music.[96] Beginning in around 1750, however, the lute disappeared from musical compositions in favor of the rising popularity of the guitar.[97] As the prevalence of string orchestras rose, wind instruments such as the flute, oboe, and bassoon were readmitted to counteract the monotony of hearing only strings.[98]
In the mid-seventeenth century, what was known as a hunter's horn
underwent transformation into an "art instrument" consisting of a
lengthened tube, a narrower bore, a wider bell, and much wider range.
The details of this transformation are unclear, but the modern horn or, more colloquially, French horn, had emerged by 1725.[99]
The slide trumpet appeared, a variation that includes a long-throated
mouthpiece that slid in and out, allowing the player infinite
adjustments in pitch. This variation on the trumpet was unpopular due to the difficulty involved in playing it.[100]
Organs underwent tonal changes in the Baroque period, as manufacturers
such as Abraham Jordan of London made the stops more expressive and
added devices such as expressive pedals. Sachs viewed this trend as a
"degeneration" of the general organ sound.[101]
Classical and Romantic
During the Classical and Romantic
periods of music, lasting from roughly 1750 to 1900, a great deal of
musical instruments capable of producing new timbres and higher volume
were developed and introduced into popular music. The design changes
that broadened the quality of timbres allowed instruments to produce a
wider variety of expression. Large orchestras rose in popularity and, in
parallel, the composers determined to produce entire orchestral scores
that made use of the expressive abilities of modern instruments. Since
instruments were involved in collaborations of a much larger scale,
their designs had to evolve to accommodate the demands of the orchestra.[102]
Some instruments also had to become louder to fill larger halls and
be heard over sizable orchestras. Flutes and bowed instruments underwent
many modifications and design changes—most of them unsuccessful—in
efforts to increase volume. Other instruments were changed just so they
could play their parts in the scores. Trumpets traditionally had a
"defective" range—they were incapable of producing certain notes with
precision.[103]
New instruments such as the clarinet, saxophone, and tuba became
fixtures in orchestras. Instruments such as the clarinet also grew into
entire "families" of instruments capable of different ranges: small
clarinets, normal clarinets, bass clarinets, and so on.[102]
Accompanying the changes to timbre and volume was a shift in the
typical pitch used to tune instruments. Instruments meant to play
together, as in an orchestra, must be tuned to the same standard lest
they produce audibly different sounds while playing the same notes.
Beginning in 1762, the average concert pitch began rising from a low of 377 vibrations to a high of 457 in 1880 Vienna.[104]
Different regions, countries, and even instrument manufacturers
preferred different standards, making orchestral collaboration a
challenge. Despite even the efforts of two organized international
summits attended by noted composers like Hector Berlioz, no standard could be agreed upon.[105]
Twentieth century to present
Headstock of a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar
The evolution of traditional musical instruments slowed beginning in the twentieth century.[106]
Instruments like the violin, flute, french horn, harp, and so on are
largely the same as those manufactured throughout the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. Gradual iterations do emerge; for example, the
"New Violin Family" began in 1964 to provide differently sized violins
to expand the range of available sounds.[107] The slowdown in development was practical response to the concurrent slowdown in orchestra and venue size.[108]
Despite this trend in traditional instruments, the development of new
musical instruments exploded in the twentieth century. The sheer variety
of instruments developed overshadows any prior period.[106]
The proliferation of electricity in the twentieth century lead to the
creation of an entirely new category of musical instruments: electronic
instruments, or electrophones.[109]
The vast majority of electrophones produced in the first half of the
twentieth century were what Sachs called "electromechanical
instruments". In other words, they have mechanical parts that produce
sound vibrations, and those vibrations are picked up and amplified by
electrical components. Examples of electromechanical instruments include
organs and electric guitars.[109] Sachs also defined a subcategory of "radioelectric instruments" such as the theremin, which produces music through the player's hand movements around two antennas.[110]
The latter half of the twentieth century saw the gradual evolution of synthesizers—instruments that artificially produce sound using analog or digital circuits and microchips. In the late 1960s, Bob Moog and other inventors began an era of development of commercial synthesizers. One of the first of these instruments was the Moog synthesizer.[111]
The modern proliferation of computers and microchips has spawned an
entire industry around electronic musical instruments. Since electronic
musical instruments may produce sound without human interaction, there
is debate in the modern music community as to whether or not computer
musicians may be considered instrumentalists.[citation needed]
Classification
There are many different methods of classifying musical instruments.
Various methods examine aspects such as the physical properties of the
instrument (material, color, shape, etc.), the use for the instrument,
the means by which music is produced with the instrument, the range of the instrument, and the instrument's place in an orchestra
or other ensemble. Most methods are specific to a geographic area or
cultural group and were developed to serve the unique classification
requirements of the group.[112]
The problem with these specialized classification schemes is that they
tend to break down once they are applied outside of their original area.
For example, a system based on instrument use would fail if a culture
invented a new use for the same instrument. Scholars recognize
Hornbostel-Sachs as the only system that applies to any culture and,
more important, provides only possible classification for each
instrument.[113][114]
Ancient systems
An ancient system named the Natya Shastra, written by the sage Bharata Muni
and dating from between 200 BC and 200 AD, divides instruments into
four main classification groups: instruments where the sound is produced
by vibrating strings; percussion instruments with skin heads;
instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air; and
"solid", or non-skin, percussion instruments.[113] This system was adapted to some degree in 12th-century Europe by Johannes de Muris, who used the terms tensibilia (stringed instruments), inflatibilia (wind instruments), and percussibilia (all percussion instruments).[115] In 1880, Victor-Charles Mahillon adapted the Natya Shastra and assigned Greek labels to the four classifications: chordophones (stringed instruments), membranophones (skin-head percussion instruments), aerophones (wind instruments), and autophones (non-skin percussion instruments).[113]
Sejarah Musik Pop sejak 1920
